Iraq is known to the world as Mesopotamia, which means fertile land, by
Hamurabi, the founders of the law, cuneiform writings and the hanging gardens
of Babylonian. The land can be considered the original home of writing,
astronomy and the earliest skill and concepts. Iraq survived one of the world's
first urban and literate civilisations. It was probably the most wealthy area
in the Middle East.
From early as 4000 DC, tens of nations could establish great civilisations in
many regions of Iraq. Sumerians appeared in the Delta region of the Tigris and
the Euphrates. Acadian's civilisation was in 2350 BC. By the 17th century DC,
the Assyrians had created a vast empire, which ended in 609 DC. After
Babylonians fell the Mesopotamia to the Persians in 550 DC.
Later on, Iraq became a battlefield between many rivals; Greeks, Seleucid,
Romans and Sasanians. Byzantines ruled Iraq until the 7th century.
After defeat of the Arab forces under Abu Ubeyd El-Thekafi at the battle of
Bridge by Persians, Iraq was re-attacked and occupied by a much larger Arab
force under Saad bin Ebi Wakkas in El-Kadisiye battle. Mass immigration of
Arabs from eastern Arabia and Oman to the south of Iraq followed in 637 AC1.
The term Iraq was not used until the 6th century. The medieval Arabic sources
used the term Iraq for the area in the centre and south of the modern republic
as a geographic rather than a political term. The area of modern Iraq north of
Tikrit was known as El-Jezire, which means "The Island" and refers to
the "island" between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers1.
The fourth Caliph El-Imam Ali changed the capital of Islam from El-Medina in
the Arabic semi-island to El-Kufe in the south of Iraq. Later on, Iraq was
divided into few principalities under the Umayyad Caliphate in Syria. The
Arabic rule of Iraq continued with Abbasids Caliphate, whose capital was
Baghdad, until 945 AC.
With the early appearance of Turkmen in Iraq during the Umayyad dynasty, their
number increased to the degree, which they predominated the army of Abbasids
Caliphate. They were holding heads of the troops and important administrative
jobs and influencing directly the determination of Caliph. The actual Turkmen
sovereignties in Iraq started in 11th century with the Seljuk Empire, which
continued for about a millennium and ended in 1918 after the First World War.
The immigration of Turkmen continued with different sized groups until the
later decades of the Ottomans Empire, during which they founded principalities,
polities and Empires.
Turkmen immigration waves started in the 7th century from Middle Asia toward
the south and the west. During this period millions of Turkmen were established
in northern west Asia and southern east Europe. The immigration waves entered
Iraq through two pathways. The eastern pathway through which entered Seljuk's
and Timurids from Iran and the northern pathway through which entered Ak
Koyunli and Ottomans from the republic of Azerbaijan and of Anatolia.
The main reason of these immigrations was to reinforce the Islam armies and
later to establish principalities, dynasties and empires. The substructures of
political administrations and armies of these polities were mainly formed from
Turkmen, who predominated gradually the population in northern Iraq. From the time
of Jalayirids dynasty, the Turkmen language gained a great importance and
became as an official language of Iraq(2). In the Ottoman's era, Baghdad was
considered an important centre of Turkmen culture, poem, arts and music.
Due to the deficiency of fine and detail sources over the Turkmen settlement
periods in the international library, it is difficult to classify it according
to the size or causes. The establishment of new polities and entry of new
tribes and troops can present a better method to determine the stages of
Turkmen settlement in Iraq.
The holiness of fighting for Islam, which still constitutes the mentality of
strict religious people and clerical, was the main cause which made the new
Islam embrace Turkmen to enter the armies during the Umayyad and Abbasids
dynasties. Later on, this took the form of protectors of Islam in all the
polities, which the Turkmen founded. The other secondary causes of Turkmen
immigrations were to join the families or tribes, to improve the standard of
living and to trade. The similarity of climate and nature between these areas
compared to Middle Asia was another factor(3).
Some of the sources mentioned that Turkmen were joined to the Caliphate armies
as mercenaries. While the historical analysis shows that they remained attached
to the teachings of Islam and regulations of the state even at the time in
which they were forming the dominant military power during the Abbasids
Caliphate. These behaviours were absolutely not expected from mercenaries.
The Turkmen settlement in Iraq can be divided according to the above-mentioned
factors into seven stages.
I. Umayyad and Abbasids Stage.
II. Seljuk Stage (1055-1258).
a. Great Seljuk Empire (1055-1194).
b. Iraq Seljuk's (1118-1194).
c. Atabeg or Zangid state (1127 - 1259).
d. Erbil Atabegs (1144-1209).
e. Kipcak state (1230-
III. Ìlhans Stage (1258-1410)
a. Ìlhans state (1258-1335)
b. Jalayirds state (1335-1410)
IV. Timurids Stage (1393-1412)
For several years
V. Koyunli* Stage (1375-1508)
a. Kara Koyunli* (Baranli) state (1375-1468)
b. Ak Koyunli (Bayindirli) state (1378 - 1508)
VI. Safavids Stage
Safavids state (1508-1534)
VII. Ottomans Stage
The Ottomans Empire (1532-1918)
I. First Stage
Umayyad and Abbasids Stage
In this stage the only cause of immigration was to join the Islam armies. Being
skilled and sincere fighters, many governors and Caliphs of Islam recruited
them as soldiers which in short time they could engage important military
positions.
Some of the writers consider this stage as the introduction of Turkmen to the
people, climate, and the nature of the region(4).
A. The earlier entrance of Turkmen in to Iraq dated back to 674 AC (54 Hegira).
The Umayyad governor Ubeydullah bin Ziyad was the first who recruited 2000
Muslim Turks and brought them to Basrah(5).
B. The fearsome El-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf who was appointed as a governor to control
the unstable situation in Iraq constructed his army from the Turkmen and
settled them in the present Turkmen area, Bedre district of El-Kut state(6).
The great historian of the Abbasids dynasty Ibn Hurdazbe mentioned in his book
"El-Mesalik and El-Memalik" that the governor of Khorasan Abdullah
bin Tahir was recruiting 2000 Turkmen every year according to the directives of
Caliph(7).
C. The Turkmen families who were brought by Caliph Ebu Cafer El-Mansur between
754 and 775 were also settled in the same area(8), (9).
D. The Caliph Harun El-Reshid formed a military Inspection Unit from the
efficient Turkmen soldiers to protect Baghdad between 786 and 809 Hegira(8).
E. The Abbasids Caliph El-Mutasim formed highly efficient forces from Turkmen.
During the following period the Turkmen completely controlled the politic and
military life. According to some sources, during the Caliphate of El-Mutasim,
40 000 Turkmen with their families were settled in Baghdad and Samarra. He
employed 10.000 of them as special guards(10). Later, the presence of the
Turkmen in Iraq greatly increased to the degree, which they were a lonely, determining
the Caliphs.
F. In the first half of 10th century, the newly immigrated Turkmen troops from
Anatolia supported the Hamdanids army to control the north of Iraq (El-Jezire).
G. A large number of Azerbaijanis Turkmen families settled in Iraq, with the
entrance of Buyids to Baghdad in 945. The largest groups entered Iraq with the
troops of Buyids leader Miz El-Devle between 877 and 98311. During this period,
the Turkmen formed a great political and military power, which enforced the
Buyids leaders to support them in the case of internal conflicts(12).
With their families and later joined relatives, these groups formed the nucleus
of Turkmen settlement in Iraq.
II. Second stage
Seljuk Stage (1055-1258)
According to many writers(4), (13) or historians(14), (15) large immigration
waves entered Iraq during this stage. This can also be understood from the size
of the Empire and the number of polities, which they established.
The largest of these waves reached Iraq at the time of Sultan Tugrul and
continued until the end of the Iraqi Seljuk State. These immigrations took the
form of groups of families settled mainly in the present central and north of
Iraq forming the majority of the population in the region at that time(4).
The Iraqi Historian Dr Mustafa Cevad(16) mentioned: "The influence of the
Seljuks over the Iraqi society was great, Thousands of Oguz Turkmen entered
Iraq in crowded groups as conquerors".
A. Great Seljuk Empire (1055-1194)
In this stage another Turkmen clan called Seljuk entered Iraq. The Seljuks were
the ruling family of Oguz (Ghuzz) Turkmen, which came from Kinik tribes. They
had early embraced Islam and founded a powerful Empire from the boundary of
India in the east to the borders of Egypt and the Aegean Sea in the west, from
Azerbaijan in the north to Omen in the South. The Empire's name was taken from
the name of tribe's chieftain and founder of Empire Seljuk.
In 1040s, the foremost troops of Seljuk conquerors started reaching to Iraq
from Iran. The unstable political situation during the Buyids dynasty
(945-1055), made the Caliph send an envoy to the Seljuk leader Tugrul Beg in
Rey asking his help(17). At 25 December 1055, Tugrul Beg (son of Seljuk)
entered Baghdad, which he considered it later, the second capital of Seljuk
Empire, and rapidly established a secure government over all Iraq. While his
brother Çagri Beg remained in control of the great part of Khorasan. In the
second half of 11th and the first half of 12th century, they gradually
established more or less direct rule over all Arabian Iraq. A leader from the
third generation, which was called Alp-Arslan, won immortal fame when he
defeated a huge Byzantine army at Malazgirt in 1071. The formalisation of
relation between Tugrul Beg, as a Sultan, and Caliph, as a religious authority,
by the great Islam theologian Imam El-Gazali was universalised in the
educational institutions El- Madrasahs. At this time, the authority of caliph
was restricted only to the religious fields. The Arabic-religio-political
status started. The most famous Madrasah was Nizamiye in Baghdad. These
institutions were giving uniform training in administration, religious law and
religion. At the time of Malikshah, Baghdad was considered as a centre of
Turkish-Islam Empire.
Seljuk power was at its zenith during the reigns of sultans Alp-Arslan (1063 -
72) and Malik Shah (1072 - 92), who with their Vezier Nizam El-Mulk, revived
Sunnite Islamic administrative and religious institutions. They developed
armies as well as an elaborate bureaucratic hierarchy that provided the
foundation for governmental administration in the Middle East until modern
times. The Seljuk's revived and reinvigorated the classical Islamic educational
system, developing universities (madrasahs) to train bureaucrats and religious
officials.
The Seljuk's could reunite parts of Islam world between, which the relations
and connections were ill organised. This brought with it a sort of
stabilisation, which attributed to the victories against crusaders18.
The disagreements between the members of the ruling family, which continued for
many decades, had exhausted the Empire. In the time of Malikshah, the Seljuk
Empire was divided into 4 dynasties:
1- Iraq and Khorasan Seljuk from 1118 until 1194.
2- Kirman Seljuk from 1092 until 1187.
3- Syrian Seljuk from 1092 until 1117.
4- Turkey Seljuk from 1092 until 1308.
The north of Iraq had strong ties to the provinces of Diyar Bakir and
Azerbaijan in the Great Seljuk Empire. The central and the south of Iraq, which
was also called Arabic Iraq, were politically bounded to Azerbaijan and north
east of present Iraq, which was called Persian Iraq.
B. Iraq Seljuk's (1118 - 1194)
After the death of Sejuk Sultan Mehmet taper, his son Mahmut established the
independent Iraqi Seljuk State. For the end of 13th century it is conquered by
Mosul Zangids.
C. Atabeg or Zangid state (1127 - 1259)
This Turkmen tribe, which was related to the Avsar clans of Oguz, entered Iraq
from the west (Aleppo) and Anatolia.
Atabeg is a term and Zangid is the name of the founder of the state. Atabeg is
a Turkmen word, which is formed from 2 parts. Ata means father or ancestor,
while Beg means Mr or sir. The counsellor of Seljuk leaders, particularly of
those at very young ages, were mentioned Atabeg15. The Atabegs were selected
from the well-known military persons or influential heads of tribes.
Imadeddin's father ruled Aleppo from 1087 as a supporter of the Seljuk's.
The Zangids polity passed through 3 periods:
1- Supporters of Great Seljuk Empire.
2- Supporters of Iraqi Seljuk's.
3- Independent state.
The first Atabeg State was founded in Aleppo in 1104. In 1127, another Turkmen
chieftain called Imadeddin Zangi founded more powerful Atabeg state in Mosul
city at the north of Iraq (1127 - 1222). Both of these states united in 1128 to
form the larger Atabeg State, which was also called Zangid State. Later, the
third Atabeg State was established in Azerbaijan. In its top the Zangids ruled
northern Iraq, Syria, Nusaybin, Mardin and Harran. They subjugated Egypt for
some period. They could also control Persian Iraq (northern east). The state
founder Imadeddin Zangi built the present Imadiye City in Duhok governorate. The
present Mucahideddin Kaymaz mosque in Mosul and the Great Mosques of Mosul and
Aleppo cities were built at this time. The Zangids showed superiority in the
fightings against crusades, which acquired them fame.
The Mosul reached its political zenith under the Zangids time. Famous schools
of metalwork and miniature painting arose in the area at this time. They
developed an extraordinarily refined technique of inlay overshadowing the
earlier work of the Samanids and the Buyids. In painting they had a sharper
sense of realism.
The Erbil Atabegs founded in 1144 by Zeynuddin Ali Küçük. in addition to Erbil
City They ruled Kerkuk, Tikrit, Imadiye, Sincar, Harran and Hakkari until 1209.
After the blindness of Küçük, this state annexed to the Mosul Atabeg. Remnants
of the school, which was built by Gökbörü, are still present in Erbil City as
the broken Minaret.
D. Kipcak (Kifcak) (1230 - ...)
Kipcaks was another Turkmen tribe. They ruled the area as supporter of Seljuk
Sultan. These groups, who had populated Kermanshah region in the lower Iranian
Azerbaijan, are expected to have entered Iraq from the east. They supported
Seljuk Sultan when conflict took place with the Caliph. During decline of
Seljuk's power they could establish a principality in 1230 called Iwakiye.
Their state included Kerkuk, Hilvan and Karmenshah.
III. Third Stage
Ìlhans Stage (1258 - 1410)
A. Ìlhans (1258 - 1335)
During the early years of the 3rd decade of the 13th century the non-Muslim
Mogol Altaic tribes started to enter Khwarezm and Iraq after the failure of the
agreement, which they had established with Khwarezm Shah in 1218. In 1258, they
invested Baghdad after repeated attacks, which had continued for many years.
The obstinate resistant had later exposed Baghdad to the horrible injuries and
massacre. The Arabic-religio-political status was ended and the Caliph was
killed. The Capital was based in Tebriz City of Iranian Azerbaijan. Baghdad was
made the capital of central and northern Iraq, while Mosul was made the capital
of Diyar Bakir province. The Ìlhans were subordinated to the great Han in
China. Under the control of Mogol authorities civilians from all the religions,
Shiites as a Muslims, shared in the polity of state. The Ìlhan Mahmut Ghazan
converted to Islam in 1295. In the fourth decade of the 14th century, the two
Mogol states were established after disagreement between the military
authorities. The states of Sulduz and Jalayirds were founded in Azerbaijan and
Baghdad, respectively.
B. Jalayirds (1335 - 1410)
Most of the sources consider Jalayirids as Mogul tribes19, while few others
relate them to Turkmen origin 20. The founder of the Jalayirids polity Sheyh
Hasan served as governor of Anatolia between 1317 - 35. After intense conflicts
between the family members, the Ìlhan Empire broke down into local states in
Anatolia, Iran, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia. Sheyh Hasan declared
independence in Anatolia. He made Baghdad the capital of the polity in 1339. In
1358, they could conquer Azerbaijan and the capital Tebriz from Sulduz. In
1364, Mosul and Diyar Bakir could be included. During this period the trade,
poetry, calligraphy was fostered and creating the great irrigating channels
revived the agriculture. The Jalayirid School of miniature Painting developed a
system of perspective that had been suggested by the Ìlhan painting school of
Tebriz. The historical Gök dome remnant in Kerkuk City is related to
Jalayirids.
However, the westward migrations and invasions of various Turkic and Mongol
tribes, beset the state. The Hans of the Golden Horde, successors of Batu,
unsuccessfully attempted to conquer Azerbaijan in 1356 - 59. The later
Jalayirids, however, dissipated their energies in fruitless foreign adventures
and fratricidal struggles.
IV. Fourth Stage
Timurids Stage (1393 - 1412)
During the short interval in which Timurids ruled Iraq, mass immigration of
Turkmen followed from Iran. Therefore, this period can be considered as a
separate Turkmen settlement stage.
The struggles between the members of the ruling family had declined the
authority of Jalayirids. New Altaic tribes under the leadership of Timurlang,
who claimed descent from Cengiz Han's family, entered Iraq from the east and
conquered Baghdad in 1393. The remnants of the Jalayirids were pushed south to
El-Hillah, Wasit, and Basra. In the beginning, Timurids were subordinated to
the Çagatay Hans, whom they later replaced. They ruled mainly the central and
north of Iraq for several years. They reached Ankara in the north and Syria in
the west and to the China boundaries in the east. In 1405, one of the
Jalayirids regained Baghdad until 1910. It is well known to the historians that
Timurids had entered Iraq with 100,000 Turkmen captives to establish their
principality21.
V. Fifth Stage
Koyunli* Stage (1375 - 1508)
The two Turkmen Koyunli states had alternated ruling Iraq for more than one
century. The Kara Koyunli Turkmen were dominating western Iran while the Ak
Koyunlis were established in Anatolia for a long time. These two immigration
waves entered Iraq at different times from east and north consecutively. This
era started in 1410 with the beginning of the Kara Koyunli State in Mosul City,
which ended with the entry of the Kizilbash Turkmen troops of Safavids to
Baghdad in 1508. Both Koyunli tribes originated from the 24 Oguz clans. In this
period, the Turkmen religio-political status replaced the
Arabic-religio-political status, which was ended by Ìlhans.
A. Kara Koyunli* (Baranli) State (1375 - 1468)
The other name of this polity was Baran. It is mentioned in some sources that
Baran was one of Oguz sons. This Turkmen State ruled Azerbaijan and Iraq from
1375 to 1468. During the early years of Kara Koyunli State in Mosul, the
Seljuk’s were ruling the central and northern parts of Iraq. Kara
Koyunli ruled Syria and the area from Mosul in northern Iraq to Erzurum in the
center of Anatolia and Iranian Azerbaijan as supporters of Jalayirids until
foundation of this state. By the seizure of Mosul City in 1374 this state secured
the independence. Later, they moved toward the south conquering Erbil, Kerkuk
and Tavuk. After the seizure of Tebriz in 1390, the area of Kara Koyunli
included almost all of northern Iran. In 1393 with appearance of Timur in Iraq,
Kara Koyunli had become supporter of Timurids. In 1400, Timur routed Kara
Koyunli. After the death of Timur they regained independence in 1406 and
established the large Kara Koyunli State, which extended from Georgia in the
north to Basra gulf in the south, from Khorasan in the east to Syria in the
west. The Baharli and Bawat were tribes of Kara Koyunli. The present settlement
regions of Kara Koyunli in Iraq are mainly in the Mosul governorate:
Yukari Kara Koyunli< Asagi Kara Koyunli Cemaliye Residiye
Kadiye Biiweyze Direç Cinci
Yarimca Fadiliye Orta Harab Tel Yara
Omer Kayci
Many types of coins were used by the people of this state over which the
pictures of early Islam Caliphs and religious phrases were present.
B. Ak Koyunlu (Bayindirli) State (1378 - 1508)
The Ak Koyunli tribes can be considered a new immigration wave. Their existence
in Mesopotamia turns back to 134022. From that time they ruled Diyar Bekir as
supporters of Timurids. This Turkmen federation ruled northern Iraq, Azerbaijan
and eastern Anatolia from 1378 – 1508. Ak Koyunli was related to the
other son of Oguz called Bayindir. In 1403 and after taking Tebriz, Ak Koyunli
established an independent principality in Diyar Bakir. They entered Baghdad in
1468. This period was more peaceful then the Kara Koyunlu time. Ak Koyunli
state in its zenith included all Iraq, Iran as Far East as Khorasan, east of
present Turkey and Azerbaijan. Development of politics, military, economy,
literary and arts took place during the period of Uzun Hasan. The application
of orthodox principles by Uzun Hasan of Ak Koyunli declined their popularity.
The internal strife affected the power of this state for a while. The coins of
Ak Koyunli contained the pictures of their Sultans Zeynel Oguzlu and the second
Hasan.
VI. Sixth Stage
Safavids Stage(1508 – 1534)
The Sunnite sect formed all the former states, principalities or Empire of
Turkmen in Iraq. The new troops of the Shiite sect entered Iraq in this period
called Kizilbash Turkmen. After Safavids supplantated Ak Koyunli in Azerbaijan
and they defeated them in a battle near the present city of Nahchevan in the
Far East Turkey in 1501 - 1502. These troops defeated the Ak Koyunli also in
Iraq after which they entered Baghdad under the leadership of Ismail Shah in
150823. They ruled Baghdad until 1534 and lower Iraq until 1538. The about 40%
Turkmen Shiites is expected to be entered Iraqi mainly in this stage. They live
inside and around Kerkuk City. Large number of Shebeks, Bajalan and Sarli who
live inside and around Mosul city, are Turkmen from the Shiite sect. Some of
the sources relate Ismail Shah to the successor of the profit Muhammed Imam
Musa El-Kadim, while the others denied this affinity. Riza Nur, in his book The
History of Turk, related hem to Turkish origin by referring to his book, which
was written in Turkmen. It is well known that his mother was the daughter of
Uzun Hasan of Ak Koyunli. The famous Safawiye sect, which was later converted
to the present name Kizibash sect, is founded by one of his ancestors24.
The Shiite’s holy places in Iraq, which were mainly concentrated in
Kerbela and Nejef, were rebuilt and irrigation canals of these regions were
constructed.
VII. Seventh Stage
Ottomans Stage (1532 - 1918)
Ottoman was the chieftain of Kayi tribe of Oguz family. They lived in Anatolia
a few centuries before the establishment of the empire. The Ottoman Empire was
a Muslim Turkmen state that included Anatolia, southern east Europe, and the
Arab Middle East and North Africa from the 14th until the early decades of the
20th century. It succeeded both the Byzantine Empire, whose capital was the
present Istanbul, it made its own in 1432. The Ottomans Empire was finally
broken up at the end of World War I, when its heartland of Anatolia became the
Republic of Turkey.
The Ottoman troops conquered northern Iraq in 1514. In 1533, Suleyman the
Magnificent integrated Baghdad (central Iraq) into the empire. Southern or
lower Iraq was incorporated by the middle of 16th century.
Expansion of the vast Ottoman political and economic sphere to include Iraq
brought with it certain advantages. Under the watchful eye of Süleyman I's
government, local administration was reorganised. The trade was increased. The
economic and living conditions of most of the inhabitants improved. The towns,
especially Baghdad, experienced some growth and new building.